Liu S, Lim YH, Pedersen M, et al. - Whether and how long-term exposure to air pollution and road traffic noise is associated with the incidence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), was investigated herein. Participants were 24, 538 female nurses from the Danish Nurse Cohort (age>44 years). Using the Danish DEHM/UBM/AirGIS modeling system, experts estimated residential annual mean concentrations of particulate matter with diameter < 2.5 µm since 1990 and nitrogen dioxide (NO ₂ ) since 1970. They applied the Nord2000 model to estimate road traffic noise since 1970. A 18.6 years’ mean follow-up revealed development of COPD in 977 nurses. In this study, long-term exposure to air pollution, particularly traffic-related NO ₂ , and road traffic noise were shown to be independently related to COPD.